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From the Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, USA.
Address correspondence to: Dr. Tong J. Gan, Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, 27710, USA. Phone: 919-681-4660; Fax: 919-681-7901; E-mail: gan00001{at}mc.duke.edu
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Abstract |
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 TOP Abstract IntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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Source: Literature from randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, logistic regression analyses and expert opinion in the management of PONV.
Principal findings: The etiology of PONV is multifactorial. Patient, anesthesia, and surgery related risk factors have been identified. Universal PONV prophylaxis is not cost-effective. Identification of patients at high-risk of PONV allows targeting prophylaxis to those who will benefit most from it. No prophylaxis is needed for patients at low risk for PONV. For patients at moderate risk for PONV, prophylaxis using a single antiemetic or a combination of two agents should be considered. Double and triple antiemetic combinations should be considered for patients at high risk for PONV. Furthermore, a multimodal approach should be adopted incorporating steps to keep the baseline risk of PONV low. The optimum cost-effective approach to the management of PONV will differ between an ambulatory centre and an inpatient hospital setting. For the treatment of established PONV in patients who failed prophylaxis, patients should not receive a repeat dose of the prophylactic antiemetic. Rather, a drug acting at a different receptor should be used. Beyond six hours after surgery, patients can be treated with any of the agents used for prophylaxis, except dexamethasone and transdermal scopolamine.
Conclusion: PONV are common after anesthesia and surgery. We provided evidence-based guidelines for the management of this problem based on the available literature.
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Introduction |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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Nausea and vomiting are also among the most unpleasant experiences associated with surgery and one of the most common reasons for poor patient satisfaction rating in the postoperative period.4 Macario et al. quantified patients’ preferences for postoperative outcomes. PONV were among the ten most undesirable outcomes following surgery. Indeed, patients allocated the highest amount (about $30) to avoid PONV out of a total of $100 they were allowed to spend to avoid all complications.5 Gan and colleagues also reported that surgical patients were willing to pay up to US $100, at their own expense, to avoid PONV.6
In this article, we will present evidence regarding the prophylaxis and treatment of PONV based on the available literature using data from randomized controlled trials, systematic reviews, logistic regression analyses, and expert opinion. We will adopt the rating scale used by a consensus panel of experts who generated guidelines for the management of PONV (Table I
).7 The cost-effectiveness of antiemetics and post-discharge nausea and vomiting will also be discussed.
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Risk stratification |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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). There is controversy regarding a number of previously reported risk factors. For instance, while certain types of surgery were reported to be associated with an increased risk for PONV,15 Apfel and colleagues did not find the type of surgery to be an independent risk factor for PONV. They suggested that the high incidence of PONV after certain operations might be caused by the involvement of high risk patients.2 Similarly, the results of studies investigating the relationship of PONV to the stage of the menstrual cycle were inconsistent. While some studies reported an increased susceptibility to PONV during the first seven days of the menstrual cycle,19,20 this was not confirmed in other studies.21 Recently, a systematic review of the results of all available studies suggested that the phase of the menstrual cycle had no impact on the occurrence of PONV (IIA).22 Another recent systematic review also reported that an increased body mass index is not a risk factor for PONV (IIA).23 A recent study suggested that differences exist in risk factors of postoperative nausea vs vomiting. The authors reported that female gender, non-smoking status, and general anesthesia increase both PONV; whereas a history of migraine and the type of surgery tend to influence nausea only.24
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A number of PONV risk scoring systems have been developed. In 1993, Palazzo and Evans prospectively studied 147 patients undergoing minor orthopedic surgery. Using logistic regression analysis, they concluded that the probability of postoperative sickness in the first 24 hr after surgery can be estimated using the following equation: logit postoperative sickness = –5.03 + 2.24 (postoperative opioids) + 3.97 (previous sickness history) + 2.4 (gender) + 0.78 (history of motion sickness) – 3.2 (gender x previous sickness history).28
Subsequently, Koivuranta studied 1,107 in-patients and used a logistic regression model to generate a score based on the strongest five predictors for PONV: score = 0.93 (if female) + 0.82 (if previous PONV) + 0.75 (if duration of surgery over 60 min) + 0.61 (if nonsmoker) + 0.59 (if history of motion sickness).16
More recently, in a study of 2,722 patients, Apfel et al. developed a simplified risk score consisting of four predictors: female gender, history of motion sickness or PONV, non-smoking status and the use of opioids for postoperative analgesia. If none, one, two, three or four of these risk factors were present, the incidences of PONV were 10, 21, 39, 61 and 79% respectively.2
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Currently available antiemetics |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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1. Serotonin receptor antagonists
The 5-HT3 receptor antagonists are highly specific and selective for nausea and vomiting. Members of this group exert their effects by binding to the 5-HT3 receptor in the chemoreceptor trigger zone and at vagal afferents in the gastrointestinal tract. Their favourable side effects profile, and in particular the lack of sedation, makes them particularly suitable for ambulatory surgery.
Ondansetron was the first member of this group to be marketed in the USA and was the most widely studied. The anti-vomiting efficacy of ondansetron is better than its anti-nausea efficacy (IIA).33 It is most effective when given at the end of surgery (IIIA).39,40 The recommended dose for prophylaxis is 4 to 8 mg iv in adults (IIA) and 50 to 100 µg•kg–1 in children (IIA).33 The NNT to prevent PONV was between 5 and 6. The reported side effects include headache (NNH = 36), dizziness, flushing, elevated liver enzymes (NNH = 31) and constipation (NNH = 23).41
Dolasetron is structurally related to tropisetron and granisetron. The recommended iv dose for prophylaxis and treatment of PONV is 12.5 mg (IA).42 The timing of administration of dolasetron appears to have little effect on its efficacy when administered for the prophylaxis of PONV (IIIA).43
Tropisetron has been studied in Europe and showed efficacy in the management of PONV. The recommended prophylactic dose is 2 to 5 mg (IIA).34 The NNT [95% confidence interval (CI)] for the prevention of nausea and vomiting at 24 hr postoperatively was 6.7 (4.8–11.1) and 5 (3.6–8.3) respectively.34
Granisetron has also been used in the management of PONV in a dose of 0.35 mg to 3 mg (IA).44,45 Although most studies have demonstrated efficacy at 1 mg for prophylaxis, a recent study suggested it might be efficacious at lower doses.46 For the treatment of established PONV, a dose of 0.1 mg was found to be efficacious (IA).47
Ramosetron is another 5-HT3 receptor antagonist with general properties similar to those of ondansetron. It is used in the management of nausea and vomiting induced by cancer chemotherapy. It has also been shown to be effective for PONV prophylaxis in a dose of 0.3 mg given at the end of surgery (IIIA).48
COMPARISON BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT 5-HT3 RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS
There is no evidence that there is any difference in efficacy or side-effect profile between the various 5-HT3 receptor antagonists, when appropriate doses are used for the management of PONV. In patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy, there was no difference in antiemetic efficacy between ondansetron 4 mg, tropisetron 5 mg and granisetron 3 mg given before induction of anesthesia.49
Dolasetron 12.5 mg was also found to have similar efficacy to ondansetron 4 mg with a similar side effect profile for the prevention of PONV.50,51 In an earlier study, dolasetron 50 mg had similar efficacy to ondansetron 4 mg.52 Similarly, in a multicentre trial, it was demonstrated that 2 mg tropisetron intravenously had similar efficacy and side effect profiles to those of ondansetron 4 mg.53 This was confirmed in another two trials comparing iv tropisetron 5 mg with ondansetron 4 mg and oral tropisetron 5 mg with ondansetron 16 mg.54,55
Fujii and colleagues compared the antiemetic efficacy of granisetron 2.5 to 3 mg and ramosetron 0.3 mg in three studies. There was no difference between the two agents in achieving a complete response (no PONV and no antiemetic rescue) during the first 24 hr postoperatively. Between 24 and 48 hr, however, ramosetron provided better prophylaxis.56–58
2. Older generation antiemetics
A. DROPERIDOL
Droperidol is a buterophenone that has been extensively used in anesthesia. In a dose of 1.25 mg, it was more cost-effective than ondansetron 4 mg and was recommended as a first line agent for PONV prophylaxis (IA).59 The NNT to prevent early nausea was 5. For both early and late vomiting, the best efficacy was with 1.5 to 2.5 mg (NNT = 7).31 In children, the recommended dose is 50 to 75 µg•kg–1 with a NNT of 4 (IIA).31 It has a long duration of action (as long as 24 hr following administration) probably due to its strong binding affinity to the emetic receptors; even though its half-life is relatively short (three hours).60 Droperidol is most effective when given at the end of surgery (IIA).31 It is also effective when given concomitantly with a patient-controlled analgesia system using morphine with a NNT (95% CI) of 5.1 (3.1–15) and 3.1 (2.3–4.8) for the prevention of nausea and vomiting respectively over the first 24 hr postoperatively (IIA).32 In this setting, the optimal antiemetic dose of droperidol was 15 to 50 µg•mg–1 of morphine (IIIA).61 Sedation and drowsiness are important side effects of droperidol and are dose dependent. Low doses of droperidol (0.625–1.25 mg) were not associated with any increased sedation compared to ondansetron 4 mg (IA).62
In December 2001, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued a new ‘black box’ warning on droperidol, which is the most serious warning for a FDA-approved drug. The FDA noted that its use has been associated with QTc segment prolongation and/or torsades de pointes, and in some cases resulted in fatal cardiac arrhythmias. A review of the cases on which the FDA issued its warning, revealed ten cases where droperidol 1.25 mg or less was used. It is difficult to draw any definitive evidence of a cause and effect relationship due to the presence of several confounding factors. The incidence of cardiac adverse events following the administration of droperidol has been estimated at 74 in 11 million. Following the black box warning, there has been a tenfold decrease in the use of droperidol in the USA.63 In Canada, while droperidol is still available, there are limitations to its use issued by Health Canada. Following similar safety concerns raised by the UK Medicines Control Agency (MCA) regarding the chronic use of high-dose oral droperidol in psychiatric patients, the manufacturer (Janssen-Cilag, Ltd.) decided to withdraw all formulations of droperidol. The decision to stop producing the parenteral formulation of droperidol was based solely on economic reasons, even though the MCA included a statement in the "Information for Patients" brochure that allowed the continued acute use of droperidol in anesthesia and as an antiemetic.64
B. METOCLOPRAMIDE
High-dose metoclopramide (1–2 mg•kg–1) has been used successfully in the management of chemotherapy-induced emesis. In order to reduce the side effects seen with these doses, notably sedation and dystonic reactions, lower doses (0.1–0.2 mg•kg–1) have been employed in the management of PONV. However, the efficacy of metoclopramide in preventing PONV at these doses is uncertain, with approximately 50% of studies showing it to be no more effective than placebo.65 In a systematic review of randomized placebo-controlled studies involving metoclopramide, Henzi et al. reported that there was no significant anti-nausea effect. The NNT to prevent early (0–6 hr) and late (within 48 hr) vomiting were 9.1 and 10 respectively.35 Indeed, most members of the recent consensus panel could not recommend metoclopramide as an antiemetic.7 A recent study, however, suggested that 20 mg might be an efficacious dose (IIIB).66
C OTHER OLDER GENERATION ANTIEMETICS
Anticholinergics block muscarinic cholinergic central nervous system emetic receptors in the cerebral cortex and pons.27 Scopolamine has the most potent antiemetic properties in this class of drugs with a NNT of 3.8 for the prevention of PONV.29 The transdermal preparation should be applied the evening prior or four hours before the end of surgery (IIB).29 Its limitations include a two- to four-hour onset of effect, as well as its medical contraindications and age related considerations.67 The NNH for the most commonly reported side effects was 5.6, 12.5, 50, and 100 for dry mouth, visual disturbances, dizziness, and agitation respectively.29
The antihistamines include the ethanolamines (dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine) and the piperazines (cyclizine, hydroxyzine, meclizine). Many of these agents have only been tested in single agent studies. The recommended dose for dimenhydrinate is 1 to 2 mg•kg–1 in adults and 0.5 mg•kg–1 in children (IIA).30 The NNT (95% CI) to stay completely free from nausea was 8 (3–20) during the first six hours postoperatively and 6 (3–33) for the period from zero to 48 hr. For vomiting, the NNT (95% CI) was 7 (4–50) and 5 (3–8) for the early and the 48-hr period respectively.30 The recommended dose for cyclizine is 50 mg (IIIA).68 Their major disadvantages are sedation, dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, and delayed recovery room discharge.69 Promethazine is an effective antiemetic with a long duration of action. In a dose of 12.5 to 25 mg given towards the end of surgery, it has been shown to be effective for PONV management (IIIB).70 Its use, however, is limited by sedation and prolonged recovery from anesthesia.65 A recent study, however, did not show increased awakening time or duration of PACU stay when compared to ondansetron and placebo in patients undergoing middle ear surgery.70
Similarly, chlorpromazine demonstrated efficacy in the prevention and treatment of PONV (IIIB).71,72 Its many side effects, particularly sedation and hypotension, limit its use as an antiemetic.
The heterocyclic phenothiazines (prochlorperazine and perphenazine) have similar antiemetic efficacy, but perphenazine causes more sedation.71,73 The recommended dose for prochlorperazine is 5 to 10 mg im in adults (IIIA).74 In children, the recommended dose for perphenazine is 70 µg•kg–1 (IA).75,76 These compounds have, however, a higher incidence of extrapyramidal side effects compared to the aliphatic phenothiazines.77
3. Non-conventional antiemetics
A STEROIDS
Following the successful use of dexamethasone in the prevention and treatment of chemotherapy induced emesis, this agent has been evaluated and found to be effective for the management of PONV.78,79 The recommended dose is 5 to 10 mg in adults (IIA)37,80,81 and 150 µg•kg–1 in children (IIA).37 More recently, smaller doses (2.5–5 mg) have been found to be effective (IIIA).80,82 In a meta-analysis, Henzi suggested that dexamethasone might be particularly effective against late PONV with a NNT of 4.3 for the prevention of late nausea and vomiting.37 Dexamethasone appears to be most effective when administered prior to induction of anesthesia rather than at the end in preventing early PONV (0–2 hr); (IIIA).82 There are no reports of dexamethasone related adverse effects in the doses used for the management of PONV (IIA).37
B. PROPOFOL
Total iv anesthesia (TIVA) with propofol is associated with a lower incidence of PONV compared with inhalational agents (IIIA).83–85 In one study, this technique was equally efficacious to ondansetron 4 mg in the prevention of PONV (IIIA).18 The antiemetic effect of propofol is most pronounced in the early postoperative period. It is not useful for PONV prophylaxis if given only as a bolus for induction of anesthesia (IIA).36 More recently, continuous subhypnotic propofol infusion and the use of patient-controlled antiemesis with propofol were also found to be effective in the treatment of PONV (IIIA).86,87 The effective plasma concentration of propofol for the 50% reduction in nausea scores has been found to be 343 ng•mL–1. This is much lower than the range required for sedation (900–1,300 ng•mL–1) and anesthesia (3,000–10,000 ng•mL–1).88
4. Future therapies
Animal studies demonstrated broader spectrum antiemetic activity of the neurokinin-1 (NK1) receptor antagonists compared with the 5HT3 receptor antagonists.89 In humans, NK1 receptor antagonists were effective for the prophylaxis and treatment of PONV (IIIA).90,91 In one study in females undergoing gynecologic surgery, the NK1 receptor antagonist provided better prophylaxis against vomiting compared with ondansetron. The combination of both agents also significantly prolonged the time to administration of rescue antiemetics compared with either drug alone, and was associated with a very low incidence of emesis (2%).91
5. Other interventions with potential antiemetic effects
Benzodiazepines were found to be effective for the prophylaxis of PONV (IB).92–94 The successful use of midazolam in cases of persistent PONV and following failure of other antiemetics has also been described (IIIB).95–97 Intramuscular ephedrine (0.5 mg•kg–1) has been shown to be effective for PONV prophylaxis especially in the early postoperative period (0–3 hr) (IIIB).98–100 Alpha2 adrenergic agonists also significantly reduced the incidence of PONV in both children and adults (IIIA).101,102 It has been suggested that the antiemetic effect of clonidine might be secondary to a reduction in the use of volatile agents and opioids, or a reduction in sympathetic tone.102 In two studies by one group, oxygen supplementation (80%) intraoperatively or both intraoperatively and for two hours postoperatively was effective in achieving a significant reduction in the incidence of PONV compared to patients receiving 30% oxygen (IIIB).103,104 These findings were not confirmed in a more recent study in females undergoing ambulatory gynecologic surgery. In this study, 80% oxygen was given intraoperatively and for up to one hour postoperatively.105 Adequate hydration was also associated with a significant reduction in the incidence of PONV (IB).106 In a more recent study, a combination of colloid and crystalloid fluid resuscitation was associated with less PONV and less use of rescue antiemetics, compared with the administration of crystalloids alone in patients undergoing major abdominal procedures (IIIA).107
6. Non-pharmacological techniques
Several investigators have shown a useful effect of non-pharmacological methods in the management of PONV. A few studies, however, failed to demonstrate a beneficial effect. Lee and Done performed a systematic review of 24 randomized trials of acupuncture, electroacupuncture, transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation, acupoint stimulation and acupressure. They found that there was a significant reduction in early PONV (0–6 hr) in adults treated with acupuncture compared with placebo and that antiemetics (metoclopramide, cyclizine, droperidol, prochlorperazine) vs acupuncture techniques were comparable in preventing early and late (0–48 hr) PONV in adults. These techniques were more effective for controlling nausea than vomiting. In children, however, no benefit was found (IIA).38 More recently, however, the effectiveness of acupuncture for the prophylaxis of PONV in children has been demonstrated (IIIA).108–111 In a recent randomized placebo controlled study in patients undergoing breast surgery, Gan and colleagues reported similar efficacy of electroacupuncture at the P6 point and prophylactic ondansetron. Of interest electroacupuncture patients reported less pain compared with the other groups (IIIA).112 The comparable efficacy of acupoint electrical stimulation to ondansetron for both the prophylaxis and treatment of PONV was also confirmed in two recent studies (IIIA). When used for prophylaxis, the combination of ondansetron and acupoint electrical stimulation was associated with lower incidence of PONV, less need for rescue antiemetics as well as improved quality of recovery and patient satisfaction, compared to ondansetron alone.113,114 Hypnosis has also been found effective when compared with placebo (IIIB).115 Although some earlier reports suggested that ginger root might have a beneficial effect for PONV prophylaxis, this has not been confirmed in a recent meta-analysis (IIA).116
7. Combination antiemetic therapy and multimodal approach
None of the available antiemetics is entirely effective for preventing PONV, especially in high-risk patients. Since at least four major receptor systems are involved in the etiology of PONV, a better prophylaxis might be achieved by using a combination of agents acting at different receptor sites. This approach, introduced first in chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting, is gaining more popularity for PONV prophylaxis. More than 40 randomized controlled trials were published comparing combination vs single agent for PONV prophylaxis. Most of these studies demonstrated improved prophylaxis using a combination of two or more agents acting at different receptor sites.117,118 This has also been confirmed in systematic reviews (IIA).37,119
The most commonly studied combinations have included a 5-HT3 receptor antagonist with either droperidol or dexamethasone. Both combination regimens appear to be equally efficacious (IIA).120,121
In addition to using a combination of antiemetics acting at different receptor sites, the multifactorial etiology of PONV might be better addressed by the adoption of a multimodal approach. This is especially important in patients at high risk for PONV.
Table VI summarizes different strategies for keeping the baseline risk of PONV low, together with the supporting level of evidence. For instance, there is an 11 fold increased risk for PONV in patients receiving general anesthesia compared to those receiving a regional anesthetic.15 TIVA with propofol has been shown to reduce the incidence of PONV, especially in the early postoperative period.36 Avoidance of nitrous oxide (which increases postoperative vomiting) and volatile agents (which cause PONV for up to two hours postoperatively), and minimizing intraoperative and postoperative opiates, also reduce the incidence of PONV.2,8–13 The use of large doses of neostigmine (> 2.5 mg) increases the risk of PONV.14 Other strategies that might reduce the incidence of PONV include the use of supplemental intraoperative oxygen (FIO2 = 0.8),103,104 adequate hydration especially using colloids,106,107 anxiolysis with benzodiazepines,122 and the use of 
2-agonists.101,102
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Post-discharge nausea and vomiting |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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In a recent meta-analysis, the NNT to prevent post-discharge nausea following ambulatory surgery was 12.9, 12.2, and 5.2 following the prophylactic administration of ondansetron 4 mg, dexamethasone, and a combination of two antiemetics respectively. For post-discharge vomiting, the NNT was 13.8 for ondansetron 4 mg and 5 for combination treatment. In this analysis, droperidol was not effective for the prophylaxis against post-discharge nausea and vomiting. These results suggest that ondansetron alone should not be used routinely in low-risk ambulatory patients and that high risk patients are best managed with a combination strategy (IIA).131
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Cost-effectiveness |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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Since the different 5-HT3 receptor antagonists have comparable efficacy and safety profiles, it was determined that acquisition cost was the main factor that differentiated the 5-HT3 compounds from one another.7
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Recommended strategy for PONV prophylaxis |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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). Combination antiemetic therapy is superior to monotherapy for PONV prophylaxis (IIA).37,117,119 The addition of TIVA to a combination of two antiemetics results in a further improved prophylaxis (IIIA).136 Figure illustrates a suggested algorithm for PONV prophylaxis.
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Recommendations for the treatment of established PONV |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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The 5-HT3 receptor antagonists were the most commonly tested drugs in rescue trials.
Similar to their use in PONV prophylaxis, the anti-vomiting efficacy of the 5-HT3 receptor antagonists is more pronounced than their anti-nausea efficacy. There is no evidence of dose-responsiveness for these agents when used for rescue. Therefore, small doses of these agents have been recommended for treatment: ondansetron 1 mg, dolasetron 12.5 mg, granisetron 0.1 mg and tropisetron 0.5 mg (IIA).137 The NNT for the different doses of the 5-HT3 receptor antagonists when used for treatment range from 2.9 to 11 (Table VII, available as Additional Material at www.cja-jca.org).
In patients who fail ondansetron prophylaxis, there is evidence to suggest that the use of ondansetron for rescue is no more effective than placebo (IA).138 A drug acting at a different receptor might be more effective in this case (IVB).139 There are some data from chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting to suggest that granisetron might be efficacious for treating patients who fail ondansetron prophylaxis.140,141 Such evidence is lacking in the PONV literature. There is also a striking lack of evidence on the therapeutic efficacy of older generation antiemetics in the treatment of established PONV. Droperidol was not different from ondansetron when used for the treatment of established PONV (IIA).142 On the other hand, ondansetron 4 mg was more effective than metoclopramide 10 mg in the treatment of established PONV (IIIA).13,143
When evaluating PONV following surgery, the role of medication and mechanical factors should be considered first. Such contributing factors might include opiates, blood draining down the throat, or bowel obstruction. Then rescue therapy can be initiated. If PONV occurs within six hours postoperatively, patients should not receive a repeat dose of the prophylactic antiemetic; a drug from a different class should be used for rescue. Beyond six hours, PONV can be treated with any of the agents used for prophylaxis except dexamethasone and scopolamine, which are longer acting. The recommendations made by the consensus panel with the corresponding level of evidence are summarized in Table VIII.7
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Footnotes |
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Accepted for publication September 15, 2003. Revision accepted January 13, 2004.
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References |
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TOPAbstractIntroductionRisk stratificationCurrently available antiemeticsPost-discharge nausea and...Cost-effectivenessRecommended strategy for PONV...Recommendations for the...References |
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